Patrice K. Morris, Contributor

Policemen patrol outside the Tower Street Adult Correctional Centre in downtown Kingston on March 31, 2005 after one warder and three inmates were killed during an attempted prison break. - Ian Allen/Staff Photographer

Within the past decade, there have been articles on the distribution of condoms in Jamaican prisons, reports on institutional violence and riots, inmate fatalities and the overcrowded conditions of the island's two maximum-security prisons.

We have read the opinions of journalists, policy makers, politicians, human rights advocates and correctional personnel on these issues, but little is publicly known about inmates' perspectives on prison life and the impact of proposed implementations such as condom distribution in prisons and prison management.

The research literature on prison life and inmate adaptations utilise two mutually exclusive theoretical perspectives in explaining how inmates adjust, cope and assimilate the prison experience. One perspective, the deprivation model, stipulates that the harsh realities and restrictive regime of the prison environment coupled with deprivations of freedom and autonomy are significantly associated with inmate adjustment. According to this perspective, inmates are usually agitated, frustrated and depressed because of the deprivations of prison life.

In contrast to the deprivation model, the importation perspective states that inmates' adjustment and behaviour in prison are based on their background, beliefs and socialisation prior to incarceration. Stated differently, the social traits and personality of inmates are strongly correlated with their lifestyle in prison and modes of adaptation to prison life. How do Jamaican inmates fit into these prisonisation models, and how best can we explain individual and collective acts of violence in Jamaican prisons?

Prison study

In 2000, I conducted a small study on the psychological impact of prison life on male and female inmates in Jamaican prisons. I had the opportunity to meet with inmates and discuss with them their views and opinions about prison life in Jamaica. In my discussions with the male inmates they shared their feelings of resentment, fear, anger and hopelessness about the tensions among inmates and with prison staff.

These prisoners believe that they live in a 'forgotten world'. In fact, the majority of inmates interviewed described prison as a 'rough place', the 'biggest tenement yard', the 'wickedest place on earth', 'a polluted place', 'the hotel of death' and the 'most horrible system of bondage existing anywhere in the world'. Advocates of the deprivation perspective would argue that these views and the pains of imprisonment that inmates face on a daily basis are contributing factors to psychological disorders, social unrest, and inmate-on-inmate assaults in prisons.

Homosexual practices

One major controversial issue that has received considerable attention not only in Jamaica, but also in other Caribbean countries, is the homosexual practices of inmates. Undoubtedly, sexual acts occur in prisons whether in the form of consensual or forced sex with other inmates. It should be pointed out that sexual contacts in prisons are not confined only to Jamaica and such practices often incite tensions and deaths.

With respect to Jamaica, we can apply the importation perspective to explain the links between homosexuality, violence and the homophobic culture of Jamaican prisons. Both warders and inmates vehemently displayed their views on condoms and sex in prisons.

A pioneer in the study of prison violence argued that violence and inmate behaviour in prison parallels the values and norms embedded in the free society. As such, the reactions of inmates and warders, according to the importation model, are mere reflections of the cultural values and belief system of the Jamaican society. Can we blame warders for lashing out at the proposal and inmates for collective acts of rioting when the majority of Jamaicans share similar views? The inmate world shares and adapts to similar cultural beliefs as the outside world, so understandably the tensions and continued debates over condom distribution that goes on outside prison walls happen inside the prisons as well.

United for strength

In fact, similar to homosexuals in the outside world, "homosexuals in prisons are united and they protect themselves from others who don't accept it", one inmate explained. Additionally, while health officials and advocates for condom distribution are concerned with disease control, some inmates are concerned with 'macho-heterosexual' control in the prison.

Apart from the disputes, inmates face other daunting challenges and insurmountable circumstances with prison life. Other contributing factors to problems in Jamaican maximum prisons are the overcrowded conditions, the despicable sanitary practices and as expressed by inmates, "the treatment received from prison staff along with the daily threats of violence". Some prisoners do suffer in prisons, some do not, and others have learned to cope with their situation while some, in most cases the younger prisoners imprisoned for non-violent offences, find it extremely difficult to adjust to prison. As one inmate puts it, "only the fittest of the fit survive here". Another inmate shared that "a lot of inmates get crazy over the years because they cannot manage the time and they cannot manage the conditions of the prison".

Despite the riots and the disputes and the tense atmosphere, some prisoners express optimism for their future and they try to adjust to everyday prison life.

"I have a lot of faith and strength", "I have my children to live for" and "Once there is life, there is hope", are comments made by inmates.

Unfortunately inmates have died, some inmates live in constant fear and anxiously hope for release or transfer out of the prison and some warders have lost their jobs; nevertheless, the debate continues. The conditions in the maximum-security prisons have essentially remained the same, the distrust and discord between inmate and correctional staff continue and the frustrations about lack of rehabilitation programmes and constructive work continues to be acutely felt by many inmates.

Patrice K. Morris is a Ph.D. candidate in the School of Criminal Justice at Rutgers University, New Jersey, and a former probation and after-care officer for the Jamaica Department of Corrections.